00:00:00 Dr. W.C. Huper, formerly chief of the environmental cancer section at the National Cancer Institute.

00:00:18 I am firmly convinced from my experience in this field that air pollutants have played

00:00:25 a remarkable role in the recent increase of lung cancer among urban populations,

00:00:32 and particularly among populations living in industrialized areas.

00:00:36 And that this increase is really progressive over the years.

00:00:43 The main cause of, which probably has been responsible for the cancer of the lung in our modern times,

00:00:52 is in our probability the automobility cost in our large cities in connection with the many industrial effluents from our industrial plants.

00:01:04 Therefore, it can be concluded that air pollutants are the main cause of the production of cancer and of the increase in cancer in recent years.

00:01:43 I'm John McKenzie.

00:02:01 The high standard of living we enjoy in the United States is largely the result of our ability to devise new and ingenious ways to burn things.

00:02:09 Combustion runs our factories, heats our homes, drives our cars, and puts astronauts into orbit.

00:02:14 And while we are the beneficiaries of combustion, we are also becoming the victims of it.

00:02:19 One of the prices we're paying for all this heat and energy is found in the fact that we are creating one of the world's largest airborne sewer systems.

00:02:27 And the air that many of us breathe has become a vicious chemical constellation of sulfur dioxide, lead,

00:02:32 fluorides, nitrogen oxides, chlorides, ozone, and carcinogenic hydrocarbons, to mention a few.

00:02:39 Buildings accumulate layers of corrosive grime. Real estate values become depressed. Livestock, vegetation, and crops are affected.

00:02:47 Polluted air costs the American people about $11 billion a year. What air pollution may cost in terms of human life is impossible to estimate.

00:02:54 We do know that the capacity of the atmosphere to absorb waste materials is limited.

00:02:59 And there is increasing evidence to indicate that those of us who live in urban areas may be playing a lifelong game of respiratory Russian roulette.

00:03:07 Some specialists feel that something like this could well happen in the United States unless we do a great deal more than we are doing now.

00:03:14 Our program chairman, Dr. Morris Schamus of New York University, talks about the medical aspects of air pollution with Dr. Leonard Greenberg,

00:03:21 professor and chairman of the Department of Preventive and Environmental Medicine at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

00:03:29 Dr. Greenberg, in the film we just saw, Dr. Hooper took the rather definite position that air pollution is the main cause of lung cancer

00:03:36 and of the recent incidence of lung cancer, the increasing incidence of lung cancer. Do you agree with this view?

00:03:43 No, I don't agree with this view. I think that air pollution may be an important cause of lung cancer, but it's not the chief cause in my opinion.

00:03:51 Well, in that case, what do you think is the main cause?

00:03:53 Well, I think excessive smoking of cigarettes is the main cause for the increase in lung cancer which has taken place in the last ten or twelve years.

00:04:02 What do air pollutants do to the system? How do they get into the human system to begin with?

00:04:06 Well, let me show you this diagram. You see, here's a diagram of the nose and mouth and the airway down into the lungs.

00:04:14 The air comes in here, goes down through the trachea and bronchi into the lungs, and finally passes through the alveoli shown here on this small sketch.

00:04:25 Now, when the air comes in with its pollutants, the pollutants are deposited along the course of the trachea and bronchi and may even reach down into the alveoli.

00:04:35 It's at this point where the gaseous exchange takes place, the exchange between oxygen going into the blood and carbon dioxide coming out.

00:04:43 And it's along the course of the bronchi and trachea that the damage is done by the pollutants.

00:04:49 So it's simply a matter of this dirt getting into the lungs?

00:04:51 And causing chronic irritation, yes.

00:04:55 Have there been recorded the clinical evidence on these extreme pollutants?

00:05:00 Yes, there are clear records on three important acute episodes.

00:05:05 One which took place in the Meuse Valley in Belgium in 1930 in which 60 persons died.

00:05:11 In 1948 in Denora, Pennsylvania in which 20 persons died.

00:05:16 And in London in 1952, an episode of relatively short duration wherein 4,000 persons died.

00:05:24 This is the chart of the London incident?

00:05:26 Yes, this is a chart of the London incident in 1952 which shows the increase in deaths late in November.

00:05:34 You can see by this peak the falling off in the curve and then another increase in deaths following.

00:05:39 And in this second curve I show one of the important pollutants, namely sulfur dioxide.

00:05:47 You can see how this increase starting prior to the increase in deaths went up to a peak and came down again and taped it off.

00:05:55 It's clear there's a correlation between the two.

00:05:58 Why the sharp drop followed by a secondary increase?

00:06:01 How do you come to that?

00:06:03 Well, we don't know the exact cause of this.

00:06:05 We think it's due to the fact that in the first outbreak, in the first severe part of the episode,

00:06:13 the most susceptible persons are killed.

00:06:15 And then there's a tapering off and finally the lesser susceptible persons are killed by the air pollution.

00:06:22 By more susceptible you mean those who have other ailments?

00:06:25 Well, those who may have other ailments, for example pulmonary ailments or heart disease.

00:06:31 More susceptible people.

00:06:33 And then finally the lesser susceptible ones are caught by this pollution.

00:06:38 Are there similar data available for this country?

00:06:41 Yes, we have similar data available for Denora, Pennsylvania, and we have similar data available for New York City.

00:06:48 I want to show you a curve of this.

00:06:53 Here's a period in New York City in 1953 in November.

00:06:59 And this shows a short period of air pollution, severe air pollution.

00:07:03 It was about eight or nine days where the deaths rose to a peak and came down again,

00:07:08 and then there was a secondary rise similar to the one you saw a minute or two ago for the London episode.

00:07:15 Now these severe episodes appear to be relatively uncommon.

00:07:19 If air pollution's a serious problem, why are they so uncommon?

00:07:22 Well, they're uncommon because you must bear in mind that the net amount of air pollution you get in the atmosphere is a combination of two factors.

00:07:32 One, the amount of pollution poured into the air, and secondly, the meteorological conditions existing at that time.

00:07:39 If, for example, you have a temperature invasion at that time, then the effects are accentuated,

00:07:45 the pollution is confined, and you get severe clinical results.

00:07:51 Such temperature inversions, particularly those that persist for long periods of time, are extremely rare events.

00:07:58 To help us understand how they come about and the reasons for them,

00:08:03 we have Dr. Frank Field, who's also associated with the Albert Einstein College of Medicine.

00:08:08 Dr. Field.

00:08:10 Well, we generally measure temperature of the atmosphere by releasing a balloon to which instruments are attached.

00:08:15 On this diagram, the instruments, and this is the normal case, will measure back the temperature and send it to the Earth,

00:08:21 and we find that normally we have a drop in temperature of about five and a half degrees for every thousand feet as the balloon rises.

00:08:28 But in certain meteorological conditions, we do have a change.

00:08:32 Instead of cooling as we rise through the atmosphere, we find that temperatures actually warm up.

00:08:37 Now here's a typical case.

00:08:39 We have here, as the balloon rises through the atmosphere diagram, which indicates that temperatures have actually been warming up to the lowest level.

00:08:46 From this point on, they gradually cool off, which is to be expected.

00:08:50 But this level right here represents an inversion, a change in temperature, which is far from expected.

00:08:57 Instead of cooling, we have warming, and this is a very stable air condition.

00:09:01 A packet of air in this level moved down to the lower levels will find itself in a much colder surrounding and will tend to return.

00:09:08 At the same time, if we take a small packet of air in the low level, replace it aloft, we find that it's colder than the surroundings and it will tend to drop back to the surface.

00:09:17 Therefore, with this kind of a condition, we have very stable air.

00:09:20 There is very little movement vertically, and this vertical movement is also, in addition, enhanced by the very little horizontal movement of the air.

00:09:29 The result is we have a continual pileup of pollution within the layer,

00:09:33 and this stability will remain until such time as strong sunshine or strong winds wipe out the inversion.

00:09:40 Thank you, Dr. Field.

00:09:42 Now, Dr. Greenberg, since these inversions, these very serious inversions, are so very rare, why should we be concerned about the problem of air pollution?

00:09:51 Well, we're concerned about the problem that takes place day by day without a severe episode

00:09:57 because we believe that air pollution can cause chronic bronchitis and emphysema by the accumulation of this pollutant in the lung tract, you see, just as I tried to point out before.

00:10:09 And I can show you some data which indicates the cause of respiratory disease in the United States in a ten-year period, 1948 to 59.

00:10:19 You see, among white males, the mortality from chronic respiratory diseases has increased tremendously.

00:10:25 And this is in spite of the fact that a chronic disease like tuberculosis is on the decline.

00:10:33 And this is true in addition to white males, it's true for all patients, colored and white and young and old, and females and males, you see.

00:10:42 And both show a great increase in the mortality from respiratory diseases.

00:10:47 We think this is related to air pollution.

00:10:50 You don't think there are any other factors that might account for this?

00:10:53 Well, we think that air pollution is one of the most important factors to account for this.

00:10:58 Thank you very much, Dr. Greenberg.

00:11:00 Now back to John McKenzie.

00:11:03 In order to find out more about the association between disease and air pollution, the United States Public Health Service is supporting an extensive research program.

00:11:11 At this intersection in downtown Detroit, a special vacuum conduit straddles the street to collect air samples, including automobile exhausts.

00:11:27 Inside the building, a variety of animals are exposed to this air, typical of that being inhaled every day by those who live in Detroit.

00:11:35 The fact that the air is dirty can be shown easily enough.

00:11:41 Not so easily seen are the long-term effects that contaminated air may have on living tissue.

00:11:47 In this special cage, animals can be exposed to different mixtures of pollutants in varying concentrations for different lengths of time.

00:11:54 Tests are then conducted which invariably show that normal activity has been reduced.

00:12:03 At the Public Health Service laboratory in Cincinnati, volunteered subjects are being exposed to automobile exhausts to determine eye irritation thresholds.

00:12:18 There seems to be little doubt that contaminated air can produce eye irritation, but the interaction between solar energy, hydrocarbons, and hydrogen oxide is not fully understood.

00:12:29 In order to duplicate outdoor conditions, exhausts generated in this engine dynamometer room are fed through a chamber where they are exposed to artificial sunlight to simulate the photochemical reactions responsible for producing smog.

00:12:42 This irradiated exhaust is then piped into the masks worn by the volunteer subjects.

00:12:51 In still a third type of testing, standard cars are fitted with special instruments to analyze the extent and types of hydrocarbons produced by the combustion of gasoline under various driving conditions.

00:13:02 Data gathered in this study have indicated that mass emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons varied inversely with average route speed.

00:13:16 While research in air pollution may prove productive, no one knows what the results will be or how long it will take to get them.

00:13:22 We do know that while research accumulates, so does pollution of our air supply.

00:13:26 It thus becomes vital that we take steps now rather than waiting until the research findings are all in.

00:13:32 One man involved in an action program is Dr. Morris Jacobs, Associate Professor of Occupational Medicine at Columbia University.

00:13:39 Dr. Jacobs, how would you propose getting pollution information to the general public?

00:13:44 Well, one of the ways of getting air pollution information to the general public is to issue a daily air pollution report or index.

00:13:55 For example, Dr. Seamus, here we have an example of how it might be issued.

00:14:03 The air pollution index for any given date, and for comparative purposes, the highest since January 1st, the lowest since January 1st, this date last year, and the average for the past years on the same date.

00:14:23 And what kind of information would you provide?

00:14:26 This information is calculated in this following manner.

00:14:33 The air pollution index is calculated from the aldehyde concentration, the ammonia concentration, the sulfur dioxide, and the carbon monoxide, all expressed in parts per million, and the dust count in million particles per cubic foot.

00:14:51 Each one of these concentrations is multiplied by a factor as shown on our chart.

00:15:00 While these are arbitrary factors, they do have some relation to the effect on human beings.

00:15:10 You mean aldehyde and ammonia are more harmful than sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide?

00:15:14 That's correct. Aldehyde and ammonia are about twice as toxic as sulfur dioxide, and sulfur dioxide is possibly about five times more toxic than carbon monoxide.

00:15:34 And so the arbitrary number gives some measure of the air pollution.

00:15:42 Does this index correlate with clinical findings?

00:15:45 Yes, I can give you one example in an incident which occurred in October 1957.

00:15:53 Along this side we have the number of deaths, and here we have the air pollution index value.

00:16:02 And I can be seen that the number of deaths increased on October the 16th to 340, whereas they're normally in October around about 200.

00:16:17 And in correspondence, the air pollution index, which was a measure of pollution, increased to a highest value on October the 16th from a normal of around 7 to this value of nearly 20.

00:16:36 This was the severe incident that was mentioned by Dr. Greenberg, was it not?

00:16:40 No, this was the second most severe incident. Dr. Greenberg was speaking about the incident in November of 1953, and this occurred in October of 1957.

00:16:54 Now what do you do with this? What would you propose doing with the index once you've established this system?

00:17:00 Well, the New York and New Jersey Cooperative Committee on Air Pollution has been working for the past several years on a system of watches and lights,

00:17:18 which would enable people to take certain protective measures and also enable those firms and others who are large users of fuel to take certain steps which would minimize the amount of pollutants that are issued.

00:17:38 For example, if our chemical monitors showed that the solid oxide concentration reached 0.5, more than 10 parts per million, and 5 parts, 5 on the smoke-shade scale, all at the same time, and lasted for one hour,

00:18:03 then the Interstate Sanitation Commission would notify the state governments of this effect.

00:18:11 Then if there was a forecast for 36 hours of stability, air stability as explained by Dr. Field, then the states might issue a first alert when the concentrations reach 0.7, over 10 parts per million, and a smoke-shade of 7.5.

00:18:36 If the air stability continued and there was an increase in air pollution as represented by these values, namely 1.5, 20 parts per million of carbon monoxide, and 9 for a smoke level, and continue to increase, then the second and the third alights would be given.

00:19:02 Have we ever had them?

00:19:05 Yes, there have been instances of the first, and in 1962, concentrations rose as far as the second.

00:19:17 What should the general public do under such conditions?

00:19:20 Well, those people who are suffering from various illnesses, such as respiratory illness, and who are the ones who are most susceptible to air pollution, and they should excite themselves least, because, and this is true for babies, because then they can breathe less and so soak their lungs less.

00:19:48 Thank you very much, Dr. Jacobs. Now back to John McKenzie.

00:19:52 While air pollution problems must ultimately be settled at the local and state levels, many areas either can't do anything because they don't have the money or the trained people who could spend it if they did, or they won't do anything because of the parochial cliche that foul air is synonymous with full employment and industrial tax revenues.

00:20:09 In 1963, Congress passed the Clean Air Act, giving the federal government powers it didn't have before.

00:20:15 It remains to be seen, however, just how effective the federal government can be in fighting air pollution.

00:20:20 Dr. Seamus talks with William McGonnell, Deputy Chief of the Abatement Branch for the Division of Air Pollution at the Public Health Service.

00:20:28 Mr. McGonnell, what does the federal Clean Air Act cover?

00:20:32 Well, Dr. Seamus, the new Clean Air Act is quite comprehensive.

00:20:36 Besides those things we traditionally had been doing for eight to ten years under the old Clean Air Act, which included research, technical assistance, and training, we now have some new authorizations.

00:20:49 One of these requires us to set up a government industry committee to look into and review progress and recommend research and other actions needed to control motor vehicle pollution and fuel pollution.

00:21:02 We're also required to promulgate and publish air quality criteria for the guidance of state and local agencies.

00:21:10 And one very important aspect of the act is that provision that authorizes us to give money in the form of grants to initiate or expand air pollution control programs at the local, state, or interstate or regional level.

00:21:26 And finally, something that is really a precedent, is the provision for federal direct abatement action.

00:21:33 Well, being a federal act, I presume that the government cannot step into a local, state matter. It must be interstate. What is the procedure?

00:21:42 This is not entirely true. We can even get involved in intrastate problems now, on request of a governor, a state air pollution control agency, or even a municipality if the state concurs in the request.

00:21:54 But if it's an interstate situation, and the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare has reason to believe that the pollution from one state is endangering the health and welfare of people in another state, we can become involved on our own initiative.

00:22:09 You mean such as being carried over by winds?

00:22:11 Yes, exactly. Across state lines.

00:22:14 And once we do initiate an action, there are very specific steps delineated in the law that we must follow. We must first of all consult with all the states involved.

00:22:25 We must, if things aren't settled satisfactorily at that time, move on to a public conference.

00:22:32 Then, if another adequate time period passes and nothing is done, we go into public hearings.

00:22:38 Finally, we get involved into legal action.

00:22:42 Sounds like an extremely complicated procedure, one that probably works better on paper than in practice.

00:22:47 Well, I think it's purposely complicated.

00:22:50 I think the Congress, in fact, they specifically stated this in the Declaration of Policy, that control of air pollution is primarily a state and local responsibility.

00:23:02 If they don't take the responsibility, it becomes the federal government's responsibility to protect these people, I think.

00:23:09 And there's a sizable number of people involved in situations like this.

00:23:13 Now, suppose that a serious pollution problem does develop, an interstate problem, and the states involved refuse to do anything about it.

00:23:22 If this happens, the federal government will come in and take action.

00:23:27 And I assure you, air pollution is going to be controlled. It's got to be controlled.

00:23:31 And we hope state and local agencies will take the responsibility because there are a lot of other incentives in the Clean Air Act to help them do this.

00:23:41 Now, as an example, in 1964, I understand your agency was requested to look into the pollution problem as it exists between New York and New Jersey.

00:23:51 What steps have been taken to clean up that situation?

00:23:53 Well, thus far, we have gone only through the first step, which was consultation with the state of New York, the state of New Jersey, and the Interstate Sanitation Commission.

00:24:02 This was in August.

00:24:04 We gathered quite a few facts at that consultation, and subsequent to it, we got a lot of information from the state, local, and interstate agencies.

00:24:13 We have since then analyzed the data, and the Public Health Services report has gone to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.

00:24:22 And the decision on what to do, whether to proceed further under the Clean Air Act, will be made by him.

00:24:30 How many areas would you say in this country are presently being affected by serious air pollution problems, or potentially serious?

00:24:37 Well, the Senate Committee, the Special Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution, headed by Senator Muskie, reported that there are about 7,000 communities affected by air pollution.

00:24:49 But in my immediate concern, the interstate area, there are about 32 standard metropolitan areas that cross state lines, and around 30 that abut state lines.

00:25:00 And although I haven't studied this in minute detail yet, I think it would be safe to say that each of these areas has air pollution to some degree that should be controlled or abated.

00:25:11 Is anything being done?

00:25:13 Yes. We, of course, have to proceed according to a priority schedule and in accordance with our resources.

00:25:20 But we gradually will be getting around to those areas that are not being adequately handled by state and local agencies.

00:25:28 Do you sense any feeling on the part of the states that the government is interfering with their activities?

00:25:33 Well, I think I would either be naive or less than honest if I said no to that question.

00:25:39 Of course, this is always a feeling on the part of states when new federal legislation comes in, which seems to impinge upon some of their priorities or responsibilities.

00:25:50 We do detect it.

00:25:52 We hope, however, that the act's stimulatory provisions will help the states do the job so effectively that we don't have to get involved.

00:26:01 How many states would you say presently have effective programs?

00:26:06 The word effective is subject to some interpretation, as you know.

00:26:11 I think being generous, I would say that not over ten of them have effective air pollution control programs.

00:26:19 Thank you very much, Mr. Pagano. Back to John McKenzie.

00:26:23 Finding solutions for air pollution is an excruciatingly complex problem.

00:26:27 To begin with, control of anything assumes we know how much is too much, and the best we can do presently is establish standards based on educated assumptions.

00:26:36 Not only do these standards vary from place to place, but so does the ability to enforce them.

00:26:40 And finally, how do we convince people that prevention and control of air pollution is less expensive than permitting it to exist at all?

00:26:48 I'm John McKenzie, and this has been the Science and Engineering Television Journal.